A Comprehensive Systematic Review of The Relationship Between Head Ultrasound Findings and the Risk of Cerebral Palsy in Premature Infants
Keywords:
Cerebral Palsy, Premature Infant, Cranial Ultrasound, Intraventricular Hemorrhage, Periventricular Leukomalacia, Neurodevelopmental Outcome, Systematic ReviewAbstract
Introduction: Prematurity remains a leading cause of long-term neurodevelopmental disability, with cerebral palsy (CP) being one of the most severe motor outcomes. Cranial ultrasound (cUS) is a primary, non-invasive neuroimaging tool in the neonatal intensive care unit for detecting brain injuries prevalent in preterm infants, such as intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) and periventricular leukomalacia (PVL). Establishing the strength and consistency of the relationship between specific cUS findings and subsequent CP risk is critical for prognosis, early intervention, and guiding clinical management (Romero-Guzman & López-Muñoz, 2017; O’Shea, 2016).
Methods: This systematic review synthesized evidence from 80 studies, including cohort studies, case-control studies, and meta-analyses. The population comprised premature infants (<37 weeks gestation). Studies were included if they involved cUS examination, assessed CP diagnosis with clear criteria, and included follow-up to at least 12 months corrected age. Data extraction focused on premature population characteristics, specific cUS abnormalities, CP assessment methods, quantitative ultrasound-CP associations, and confounding factors (Linsell et al., 2016).
Results: The analysis revealed a strong, hierarchical association between cUS abnormalities and CP risk. Cystic PVL showed the strongest association (Odds Ratio [OR] up to 70.9), followed by non-cystic PVL (Relative Risk [RR] 9.27), and severe IVH (Grade III-IV; OR 3.1-3.4). A normal cUS had a high predictive value (99%) for a normal or mildly abnormal MRI. Key risk factors like chorioamnionitis, lower gestational age, and postnatal dexamethasone exposure were significantly linked to both cUS abnormalities and CP. Intervention studies indicated that early treatment for post-hemorrhagic ventricular dilatation (PHVD) and antenatal corticosteroids improved neurodevelopmental outcomes (Gotardo et al., 2019; Hirtz et al., 2015; Cizmeci et al., 2020).
Discussion: The heterogeneity in effect estimates across studies is attributable to population differences (e.g., extremely preterm vs. late preterm), timing and technique of cUS assessment, variations in CP outcome definitions, and methodological quality. The evidence confirms that cUS is a valuable prognostic tool, particularly for severe white matter injury and hemorrhage. However, its predictive accuracy is context-dependent, being highest in the most vulnerable infants. The mediating role of cUS-detectable injury in treatment effects (e.g., magnesium sulfate) underscores its importance in understanding pathways to CP (Guillot et al., 2020; Villamor-Martínez et al., 2019).
Conclusion: Specific cUS findings, especially cystic PVL and high-grade IVH, are significant predictors of CP risk in preterm infants. Serial cUS screening, particularly at ~1 week and term-equivalent age, is recommended for high-risk infants. Prognostic counseling should consider both the strong reassurance offered by a normal scan and the nuanced interpretation of abnormal findings, acknowledging other contributing risk factors. Future research should prioritize standardized imaging protocols, longitudinal designs with long-term follow-up, and the integration of cUS with advanced imaging modalities for improved prediction.
References
A. Arco, G. Pagano, E. Gitto, S. Aversa, and I. Barberi. “1088 Ventilation Modality and Cerebral Damage in Preterm Infants.” Archives of Disease in Childhood, 2012.
A. Brouwer, F. Groenendaal, Inge-Lot C van Haastert, K. Rademaker, P. Hanlo, and L. D. de Vries. “Neurodevelopmental Outcome of Preterm Infants with Severe Intraventricular Hemorrhage and Therapy for Post-Hemorrhagic Ventricular Dilatation.” Jornal de Pediatria, 2008.
A. Elvrum, S. B. Kårstad, Gry Hansen, Ingrid Randby Bjørkøy, S. Lydersen, K. H. Grunewaldt, and A. Eliasson. “The Small Step Early Intervention Program for Infants at High Risk of Cerebral Palsy: A Single-Subject Research Design Study.” Journal of Clinical Medicine, 2024.
A. M. Plomgaard, C. Hagmann, T. Alderliesten, T. Austin, F. van Bel, O. Claris, E. Dempsey, et al. “Brain Injury in the International Multicenter Randomized SafeBoosC Phase II Feasibility Trial: Cranial Ultrasound and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Assessments.” Pediatric Research, 2015.
A. Wasunna. “Effects of Theophylline Administration and Intracranial Abnormalities on Protective Head Turning Response in Preterm Infants.” East African Medical Journal, 2004.
Abdul Razak, Waseemoddin Patel, Naveed Ur Rehman Durrani, and A. Pullattayil. “Interventions to Reduce Severe Brain Injury Risk in Preterm Neonates.” JAMA Network Open, 2023.
B. Roy, K. Walker, C. Morgan, M. Finch-Edmondson, C. Galea, M. Epi, N. Badawi, and I. Novak. “Epidemiology and Pathogenesis of Stroke in Preterm Infants: A Systematic Review.” Journal of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, 2021.
C. Rath, Shripada C Rao, Pradeep Suryawanshi, S. Desai, Chinmay Chetan, K. Patil, and S. Patole. “Does Abnormal Doppler on Cranial Ultrasound Predict Disability in Infants with Hypoxic‐ischaemic Encephalopathy? A Systematic Review.” Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 2022.
C. Roufaeil, Abdul Razak, and A. Malhotra. “Cranial Ultrasound Abnormalities in Small for Gestational Age or Growth-Restricted Infants Born over 32 Weeks Gestation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Brain Science, 2022.
Chunliu Hu, Yunwei Wei, Yanling Du, He-Qin Li, Zhi‐hua Liu, Y. Qiu, and Hui-Ting Yang. “[Effect of Acupoint Massage Dominant Early Comprehensive Intervention on the Prognosis of Premature Infants with Brain Injury].” Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi Zhongguo Zhongxiyi Jiehe Zazhi = Chinese Journal of Integrated Traditional and Western Medicine, 2014.
Cindy Viviana Veloz-Serrano, R. Hernández-Herrera, and Francisco García-Quintanilla. “[Prenatal Dexametasone and Periventricular Leucomalacia in Prematures].” Revista Medica Del Instituto Mexicano Del Seguro Social, 2010.
D. Hirtz, Steven J. Weiner, D. Bulas, M. DiPietro, J. Seibert, D. Rouse, B. Mercer, et al. “Antenatal Magnesium and Cerebral Palsy in Preterm Infants.” Jornal de Pediatria, 2015.
D. Lu, X. Tong, Yunfeng Liu, Ying-Nian Ge, and Xinheng Feng. “Eeffect of Patent Ductus Ateriosus on Cerebral Haemodynamic Changes and Morbidity of Periventricular-Intraventricular Hemorrhage in Preterm Infants,” 2014.
D. Mayock, S. Gogcu, Mihai Puia-Dumitrescu, D. Shaw, Jason Wright, B. Comstock, P. Heagerty, and S. Juul. “Association Between Term Equivalent Brain MRI and 2 Year Outcomes in Extremely Preterm Infants: A Report from the PENUT Trial Cohort.” Jornal de Pediatria, 2021.
D. Wilson, S. Breitbart, Lee DiFonzo, Edmond Kelly, Y. Diambomba, D. Kajal, Kamini Raghuram, et al. “Implementation of an Early Intervention Strategy for Post Hemorrhagic Ventricular Dilatation in Preterm Infants.” Journal of Perinatology, 2025.
Dandan Chen, Meiyuan Huang, Yang Yin, Dongmei Gui, Yuniao Gu, Taiping Zhuang, Caihua Chen, and Kaiming Huo. “Risk Factors of Cerebral Palsy in Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Translational Pediatrics, 2021.
Dhaval Patel, Asit Vora, Parth Goyal, and Pankaj Dubey. “Effects of Antenatal Steroids with Magnesium Sulphate on Intraventricular Hemorrhage and Periventricular Leukomalacia in Neonates Born Below 32 Weeks of Gestation.” National Journal of Medical Research, 2024.
Dorota Dunm-Wasowicz, K. Rowecka-Trzebicka, B. Milewska-Bobula, B. Kassur-Siemieńska, A. Bauer, M. Idzik, B. Lipka, and P. Marciński. “Risk Factors for Cerebral Palsy in Very Low-Birthweight Infants in the 1980s and 1990s.” Journal of Child Neurology, 2000.
E. Calisici, Z. Eras, I. K. Gokce, M. Oncel, S. Oğuz, and U. Dilmen. “PO-0812 Neurodevelopmental Outcomes Of Premature Infants With Severe Intraventriculer Hemorrhagea.” Archives of Disease in Childhood, 2014.
E. Calisici, Z. Eras, M. Oncel, Ş. Oğuz, I. K. Gokce, and U. Dilmen. “Neurodevelopmental Outcomes of Premature Infants with Severe Intraventricular Hemorrhage.” Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine, 2015.
E. I. Kleshchenko, M. P. Yakovenko, D. Kayumova, and V. E. Kharchenko. “Risk Factors for Impaired Motor Development in Late Preterm Infants: A Prospective Cohort Study.” Kuban Scientific Medical Bulletin, 2025.
E. Shinwell, M. Karplus, D. Reich, Z. Weintraub, S. Blazer, D. Bader, S. Yurman, et al. “Early Postnatal Dexamethasone Treatment and Increased Incidence of Cerebral Palsy.” Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 2000.
E. Valverde, M. Ybarra, Andrea V. Benito, M. Bravo, and A. Pellicer. “Posthemorrhagic Ventricular Dilatation Late Intervention Threshold and Associated Brain Injury.” PLoS ONE, 2022.
Eduardo Villamor-Martínez, M. Fumagalli, Y. Alomar, S. Passera, G. Cavallaro, F. Mosca, and E. Villamor. “Cerebellar Hemorrhage in Preterm Infants: A Meta-Analysis on Risk Factors and Neurodevelopmental Outcome.” Frontiers in Physiology, 2019.
Eva Loucaides, Georgina Yan, Jonathan Elliott, Eleanor Duckworth, Rachael MacLeod, Frederick Katongole, Wilson Okot, et al. “Neonatal Intracranial Pathologies on Ultrasound Imaging in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Pediatric Research, 2024.
F. Skokić, and N. Dedić. “Intracranial Bleeding in Pre-Term Liveborns After Antepartum Administration of Corticosteroids [Article in Bosnian],” 2006.
Fleur A. Camfferman, R. de Goederen, P. Govaert, J. Dudink, F. van Bel, A. Pellicer, F. Cools, et al. “Diagnostic and Predictive Value of Doppler Ultrasound for Evaluation of the Brain Circulation in Preterm Infants: A Systematic Review.” Pediatric Research, 2020.
G. J. Romero-Guzman, and F. López-Muñoz. “[Prevalence and Risk Factors for Periventricular Leukomalacia in Preterm Infants. A Systematic Review].” Revista de Neurología (Ed. Impresa), 2017.
H. Maksić, F. Hadžagić-Ćatibušić, S. Heljić, and J. Dizdarević. “The Effects of Antenatal Corticosteroid Treatment on Intraventricular-Periventricular Hemorrhage (IVH-PVH) of Premature Infants,” 2008.
Hongli Ji. “Clinical Study on Intracranial Color Doppler Ultrasound Dynamic Monitoring in Evaluation of Cerebral Injury in Neonatal Hypoxic Ischemic Encephalopathy,” 2019.
Huiqing Sun, Yan Zhou, H. Xiong, Wengqing Kang, Bang-li Xu, Da-peng Liu, Xiao-li Zhang, et al. “Prognosis of Very Preterm Infants with Severe Respiratory Distress Syndrome Receiving Mechanical Ventilation.” Lung, 2015.
I. Makhoul, O. Zmora, A. Tamir, E. Shahar, and P. Sujov. “Congenital Subependymal Pseudocysts: Own Data and Meta-Analysis of the Literature.” The Israel Medical Association Journal : IMAJ, 2001.
Isabel Benavente-Fernández, S. Steggerda, K. Liem, S. Lubián-López, and L. D. de Vries. “Ultrasonographic Estimation of Ventricular Volume in Infants Born Preterm with Post- Hemorrhagic Ventricular Dilatation: A Nested Sub-Study of the Randomized Controlled ELVIS Trial.” Jornal de Pediatria, 2023.
J. Afifi, M. Seshia, R. Baier, Y. Wrogemann, and M. Reed. “Cerebellar Size at Term Equivalent Age: Cranial Ultrasonography Using Supplemental Acoustic Windows Is Comparable to Magnetic Resonance Imaging,” 2013.
J. F. Fernández Alvarez, P. Amess, R. Gandhi, and H. Rabe. “Diagnostic Value of Subependymal Pseudocysts and Choroid Plexus Cysts on Neonatal Cerebral Ultrasound: A Meta-Analysis.” Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 2009.
J. Leflore, J. Leflore, Walid A. Salhab, R. Broyles, and W. Engle. “Association of Antenatal and Postnatal Dexamethasone Exposure with Outcomes in Extremely Low Birth Weight Neonates.” Pediatrics, 2002.
Juliana Wendling Gotardo, Nathalia de Freitas Valle Volkmer, Guilherme Stangler, A. Dornelles, B. Bohrer, and C. Carvalho. “Impact of Peri-Intraventricular Haemorrhage and Periventricular Leukomalacia in the Neurodevelopment of Preterms: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” PLoS ONE, 2019.
K. Rademaker, C. Uiterwaal, F. Beek, I. C. Haastert, A. Lieftink, F. Groenendaal, D. Grobbee, and L. D. Vries. “221 Neonatal Cranial Ultrasound Compared with Conventional MRI at School Age in Preterm Born Children, Related to Neurodevelopmental Outcome.” Pediatric Research, 2004.
Katherine Riordan, Brenden Barness, Hasan Sumdani, Anthony M. Avellino, and M. Weinand. “Utility of Diffusion Tensor Imaging in Preterm Infants with Germinal Matrix Hemorrhage and Intraventricular Hemorrhage: A Systematic Review.” World Neurosurgery, 2024.
L. Haataja. “The Challenge of Predicting Cerebral Palsy.” Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 2016.
L. Linsell, R. Malouf, J. Morris, J. Kurinczuk, and N. Marlow. “Prognostic Factors for Cerebral Palsy and Motor Impairment in Children Born Very Preterm or Very Low Birthweight: A Systematic Review.” Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 2016.
L. van Wyk, and G. Kali. “Time for Change: Integrating Cranial Ultrasound into Routine Practice in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Pediatric Research, 2025.
Lan-Wan Wang, Yung-Chieh Lin, S. Wang, T. Yeh, and Chao-Ching Huang. “Hypoxic/Ischemic and Infectious Events Have Cumulative Effects on the Risk of Cerebral Palsy in Very-Low-Birth-Weight Preterm Infants.” Neonatology, 2014.
Luísa Carneiro da Silva, Cláudia Coelho Faria, and André Mendes da Graça. “Timing of Intervention in Posthemorrhagic Ventricular Dilatation in Preterm Infants.” Portuguese Journal of Pediatrics, 2024.
M. Andrew, J. Parr, C. Montague-Johnson, O. Braddick, K. Laler, Nicola Williams, B. Baker, and P. Sullivan. “Optimising Nutrition to Improve Growth and Reduce Neurodisabilities in Neonates at Risk of Neurological Impairment, and Children with Suspected or Confirmed Cerebral Palsy.” BMC Pediatrics, 2015.
M. Cizmeci, F. Groenendaal, K. Liem, Ingrid C. van Haastert, Isabel Benavente-Fernández, H. van Straaten, S. Steggerda, et al. “Randomized Controlled Early Versus Late Ventricular Intervention Study (ELVIS) in Posthemorrhagic Ventricular Dilatation: Outcome at 2 Years.” Jornal de Pediatria, 2020.
M. Dunbar, K. Woodward, L. Leijser, and A. Kirton. “Antenatal Diagnosis of Fetal Intraventricular Hemorrhage: Systematic Review and Meta‐analysis.” Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 2020.
M. Kırlangıç, E. Şahin, Y. Madendağ, Merve Vural Yalman, Esra Akdemir, M. Eraslan Şahin, I. Col Madendag, and G. Acmaz. “The Role of the Brain-Sparing Effect of Growth-Restricted Fetuses in Newborn Germinal Matrix/Intraventricular Hemorrhage.” Journal of Perinatal Medicine, 2021.
M. Lo, J. Kishimoto, R. Eagleson, S. Bhattacharya, and S. Ribaupierre. “Does Ventricular Volume Affect the Neurodevelopmental Outcome in Infants with Intraventricular Hemorrhage?” Child's Nervous System, 2019.
M. Nelson, R. White-Traut, U. Vasan, J. Silvestri, E. Comiskey, Patricia Meleedy-Rey, S. Littau, Guoguang Gu, and Minu K. Patel. “One-Year Outcome of Auditory-Tactile-Visual-Vestibular Intervention in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit: Effects of Severe Prematurity and Central Nervous System Injury.” Journal of Child Neurology, 2001.
Margot Bosanquet, L. Copeland, R. Ware, and R. Boyd. “A Systematic Review of Tests to Predict Cerebral Palsy in Young Children.” Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 2013.
Marloes J. Inklaar, J. Klink, T. T. Stolk, E. W. V. Zwet, Dick Oepkes, and E. Lopriore. “Cerebral Injury in Monochorionic Twins with Selective Intrauterine Growth Restriction: A Systematic Review.” Prenatal Diagnosis, 2014.
Mathies Rondagh, Bregje O van Oldenmark, Phebe J Adama van Scheltema, E. Lopriore, J. V. van Klink, E. Verweij, L. D. de Vries, S. Groene, and S. Steggerda. “A Systematic Review of Pre- and Postnatal Ultrasound Measurements for Assessing Brain Growth: Reliability and Implications for Clinical Practice.” Early Human Development, 2025.
Miguel Alsina-Casanova, Mathias Lühr-Hansen, Victoria Aldecoa-Bilbao, Ruth del Rio, Pierre Maton, K. Sarafidis, Pamela Zafra-Rodríguez, et al. “Effect of Cerebral Oximetry-Guided Treatment on Brain Injury in Preterm Infants as Assessed by Magnetic Resonance Imaging at Term Equivalent Age: An Ancillary SafeBoosC-III Study.” Neonatology, 2024.
Mireille Guillot, M. Sebastianski, and B. Lemyre. “Comparative Performance of Head Ultrasound and MRI in Detecting Preterm Brain Injury and Predicting Outcomes: A Systematic Review.” Acta Paediatrica, 2020.
N. Baik, B. Urlesberger, B. Schwaberger, G. Schmölzer, A. Avian, and G. Pichler. “Cerebral Haemorrhage in Preterm Neonates: Does Cerebral Regional Oxygen Saturation During the Immediate Transition Matter?” Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 2015.
O. Romantsik, M. Calevo, and M. Bruschettini. “Head Midline Position for Preventing the Occurrence or Extension of Germinal Matrix-Intraventricular Hemorrhage in Preterm Infants.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2017.
P. Accardo, and A. Hoon. “The Challenge of Cerebral Palsy Classification: The ELGAN Study.” Jornal de Pediatria, 2008.
P. Srinivasakumar, David Limbrick, R. Munro, Deanna Mercer, R. Rao, T. Inder, and A. Mathur. “Posthemorrhagic Ventricular Dilatation—Impact on Early Neurodevelopmental Outcome.” American Journal of Perinatology, 2012.
“Paediatric Medicine—Tasmania.” Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 2024.
Paola Valdez Sandoval, Paola Hernández Rosales, Deyanira Gabriela Quiñones Hernández, Eva Alejandra Chavana Naranjo, and Victor Garcia Navarro. “Intraventricular Hemorrhage and Posthemorrhagic Hydrocephalus in Preterm Infants: Diagnosis, Classification, and Treatment Options.” Child's Nervous System, 2019.
Po-Ming Wu, Hsin-I. Shih, Wen-Hao Yu, Li-Wen Chen, Lie Wang, Chao-Ching Huang, and Y. Tu. “Corpus Callosum and Cerebellar Vermis Size in Very Preterm Infants: Relationship to Long-Term Neurodevelopmental Outcome.” Pediatrics and Neonatology, 2019.
Putri Maharani, Tristanita Marsubrin, Kanya Lalitya, Jayanimitta Sugiyarto, Jessica Sylvania Oswari, Dian Anggur Yulianti, R. Rohsiswatmo, et al. “E-Prem Checklist-Driven Strategy to Improve Outcomes in Extremely Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants: A Quasi-Experimental Study at a National Referral Hospital in Indonesia.” BMJ Open, 2025.
R. Agarwal, M. Chiswick, S. Rimmer, G. M. Taylor, R. McNally, R. Alston, and S. D'Souza. “Antenatal Steroids Are Associated with a Reduction in the Incidence of Cerebral White Matter Lesions in Very Low Birthweight Infants.” Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 2002.
R. Mittendorf, J. Dambrosia, P. Pryde, K. Lee, J. Gianopoulos, R. Besinger, and P. Tomich. “Association Between the Use of Antenatal Magnesium Sulfate in Preterm Labor and Adverse Health Outcomes in Infants.” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2002.
R. Mittendorf, P. Pryde, and K. Lee. “Association Between Use of Antenatal Magnesium Sulfate in Preterm Labor and Adverse Health Outcomes in Infants.” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2003.
R. White-Traut, M. Nelson, J. Silvestri, Minu K. Patel, M. Berbaum, Guo-Guang Gu, and P. M. Rey. “Developmental Patterns of Physiological Response to a Multisensory Intervention in Extremely Premature and High-Risk Infants.” Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic and Neonatal Nursing, 2004.
S. Al-Abdi, and M. Al-Aamri. “Timing of Intraventricular Hemorrhage in Preterm Neonates.” Jornal de Pediatria, 2021.
S. Arulkumaran, and T. Arichi. “Is There Predictive Value in Early Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain in Infants Born Preterm?” Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 2018.
S. Horsch, A. Parodi, B. Hallberg, M. Malova, I. Björkman-Burtscher, I. Hansen-Pupp, N. Marlow, et al. “Randomized Control Trial of Postnatal rhIGF-1/rhIGFBP-3 Replacement in Preterm Infants: Post-Hoc Analysis of Its Effect on Brain Injury.” Frontiers in Pediatrics, 2020.
S. Kang, Sung Eun Kim, M. Hur, and Sang Geel Lee. “A Study on the Risk Factors of Periventricular Leukomalacia in Combined Use with GentleVentilation and High-Frequency Ventilation,” 2001.
Ş. Yiğit, Mintaze Kerem, A. Livanelioğlu, O. Oran, G. Erdem, A. Mutlu, G. Turanlı, G. Tekinalp, and M. Yurdakök. “Early Physiotherapy Intervention in Premature Infants.” Turkish Journal of Pediatrics, 2002.
Samuel B Axford, Alice C. Burnett, Abdulbasit Seid, Pat Anderson, Jamie L Waterland, Courtney P Gilchrist, J. Olsen, Thi-Nhu-Ngoc Nguyen, L. Doyle, and J. Cheong. “Risk Factor Effects on Neurodevelopment at 2 Years in Very Preterm Children: A Systematic Review.” Pediatrics, 2025.
Sara Rahafard, R. Ahmadi, A. Tavakolian, Omolbanin Heydari, H. Jafarpour, M. Behnamfar, Roozbeh Nasibeh, F. Ashrafinia, and M. Naseri. “Association Between Intracerebral Hemorrhage and Cerebral Palsy in Preterm Infant: A Systematic Review Article,” 2020.
Sida Wang, Chun-yan Liao, Shuyuan Liang, D. Zhong, Junjie Liu, and Zhixian Li. “Ultrasound Findings of Mild Neonatal Periventricular-Intraventricular Hemorrhage After Different Treatments.” International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, 2015.
T. Abiramalatha, T. Bandyopadhyay, V. V. Ramaswamy, N. Shaik, Sivam Thanigainathan, A. Pullattayil, and P. Amboiram. “Risk Factors for Periventricular Leukomalacia in Preterm Infants: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and GRADE-Based Assessment of Certainty of Evidence.” Pediatric Neurology, 2021.
T. O’Shea. “Predicting Motor Impairments Among Children Born Extremely Preterm or Very Low Birthweight.” Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 2016.
U. Felderhoff‐Mueser, and C. Bührer. “Clinical Measures to Preserve Cerebral Integrity in Preterm Infants.” Early Human Development, 2005.
Yvonne W. Wu, and J. Colford. “Chorioamnionitis as a Risk Factor for Cerebral Palsy: A Meta-Analysis,” 2001.
———. “Chorioamnionitis as a Risk Factor for Cerebral Palsy: A Meta-Analysis.” Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), 2000.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 M. Faza Akroma, Leviani Mulia Primadani (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
